Export Controls in the United Kingdom

Overview of UK export controls

Post-Brexit, the UK now has an export control regime that is independent from that of the EU, governing the movement of dual-use and other sensitive goods from the UK (alongside pre-existing stand-alone UK export controls on military and other items).

The UK’s export control regime still remains broadly aligned to that of the EU, such that the majority of the core principles set out in Chapter 8 continue to apply equally in the UK, and we do not cover those further in this chapter.

However, although related to the EU’s regime, there are certain differences between the UK and EU export control regimes, as well as a number of additional requirements and complexities resulting from the disentanglement of the UK from the EU dual-use export control regime. This chapter summarises these key considerations from a UK export perspective, supplementing the core principles under EU export controls covered in Chapter 8.

UK dual-use export controls

Impact of Brexit

Prior to 31 December 2020, the EU Dual-Use Regulation^[2] governed the movement of dual-use goods from the EU to countries outside of the EU and was directly applicable in the UK. Following the end of the Brexit transition period, the UK retained and transposed the Regulation (and the EU Torture Regulation) as applicable at that time into UK law,^[3] meaning that it continued to operate in the UK effectively as it did prior to the end of the transition period (alongside pre-existing independent UK dual-use and military export controls). However, post-Brexit, the UK is now treated as a ‘third country’ from the perspective of EU export controls and vice versa. As at the time of writing, the UK has not yet adopted equivalent changes as were implemented in the current, recast EU Dual-Use Regulation.^[4]

UK controlled items

In the UK, goods, software and technology subject to export controls (Items) are consolidated and listed within the UK Strategic Export Control Lists.^[5] This includes not only military and dual-use listed Items, but also certain other lists, including torture equipment, non-military firearms and radioactive sources.

Given that the UK transposed Regulation (EC) No. 428/2009 into UK law, and remains a party to the same relevant international export control frameworks (i.e., the Wassenaar Arrangement, the Australia Group (chemical weapons), the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the Missile Technology Control Regime), the current UK and EU export control lists are very closely aligned. However, there is scope for divergence going forwards.

Dual-use exports between GB and the EU – requirement for export licences

As a result of Brexit, export licences are now required for the export of all controlled dual-use items between Great Britain (i.e., England, Scotland and Wales) (GB) and the EU.

The UK and EU both sought to mitigate the impact of this by issuing general licences that permit the export of dual-use items between GB and the EU as follows:

• the UK’s Export Control Joint Unit (ECJU) issued an Open General Export Licence for the export of dual-use items from and to EU Member States and the Channel Islands (EU-27 OGEL); and
• the EU added the UK to the Union General Export Authorisation EU001^[6] (EU GEA 001), joining the eight existing territories to which the majority of EU dual-use Items can be exported under this authorisation, namely Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland (including Liechtenstein) and the US.

The EU-27 OGEL and EU GEA 001 avoid the need for exporters to apply for specific individual licences for exports of dual-use items between GB and the EU. They also remove any waiting time for authorisation before proceeding with an export, as both licences simply require the exporter to register for their use. However, there is an increased administrative burden on exporters, given the need to comply with the relevant requirements under these licences, as follows.

• Registration: in the UK, exporters need to sign up to the UK’s online export licence system (SPIRE) and register for the EU-27 OGEL; likewise, in EU Member States, exporters will also have to register with the relevant EU Member State authority if using the EU GEA 001 (with registration requirements varying, sometimes significantly, between those Member States).
• Licence conditions: exporters are also required to meet certain conditions under both the EU-27 OGEL and EU GEA 001, including record-keeping. Failure to do so can be a criminal offence, and could result in being restricted from using the licence in the future. Notably, the EU-27 OGEL does not apply in certain situations where an exporter knows that the final destination of the items concerned is outside the EU and no processing or working is to be performed within the EU (other than where the end destination would be covered by an existing UK licence available to the exporter).
• Audits: registration for the EU-27 OGEL will likely also result in the registrant being subject to audits by the UK ECJU.

Dual-use exports from the EU or UK to the rest of the world

Previously, exporters exporting dual-use goods from the EU or UK to the rest of the world (RoW) could apply for a licence in either the UK or another EU Member State and subsequently export from any country in the EU (subject to certain restrictions in respect of specific licences and the position of relevant EU Member State export authorities).

However, post-Brexit, this is no longer possible as:

• UK-issued export licences are no longer valid for exports from the EU to the RoW;
• EU Member States-issued export licences are no longer valid for exports from the UK to the RoW; and
• the ‘exporter’ (i.e., the entity that holds the relevant licence) must be established in the EU to export from the EU, and in the UK to export from the UK.

In certain cases, there may be applicable licensing requirements in both the UK and the EU. This may include situations where a UK exporter exports an item to the EU, knowing that the item will then be transferred to outside the EU – potentially triggering both UK and EU licensing requirements to the final destination. Given UK and EU rules on ‘brokering’ (including arranging the movement of items between third countries), there may also be situations where EU and UK export and brokering licensing requirements apply in parallel.

The impact of the Northern Ireland Protocol

Although the UK is treated as a third country from the perspective of EU export controls and vice versa, conversely, the now-updated EU Dual-Use Regulation continues to apply directly in Northern Ireland (NI), pursuant to the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland.^[7]

The EU and UK agreed the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland to prevent a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, by keeping NI in the EU’s single market for goods. This has an impact from a dual-use export control perspective. Whereas the older version of the EU Dual-Use Regulation has continued to apply as ‘retained EU law’ in GB, the updated version of the EU Dual-Use Regulation that applies in the EU applies in NI.

Exports between NI and the EU

The EU has made it clear that, in line with the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland, exports between the EU and NI are treated as intra-EU transfers in both directions and will not need a licence (other than in respect of items controlled under Annex IV to the EU Dual-Use Regulation or in respect of military-controlled goods). Therefore, the majority of dual-use goods being exported between NI to the EU do not require an export licence.

Exports between GB and NI

The UK government has made it clear that there are no licensing requirement to move dual-use items from NI to GB, or vice versa.

Military export controls

As noted in Chapter 8, export controls in relation to military items are the preserve of each EU Member State. Consequently, the UK’s departure from the EU did not have a material impact on the UK’s military export regime, and the export of military items from the UK to the EU (and indeed between all EU Member States) still requires an export licence. UK Guidance also clarified that the position has not changed regarding NI in respect of these controls.

The UK’s military export controls are set out in Schedule 2 of the UK’s Export Control Act 2008.^[8] This currently remains closely aligned with the EU common military list.

Updated UK military end-use controls

With effect from 19 May 2022, the UK has expanded its military export end-use control to capture non-listed dual-use items where (with certain exceptions) the exporter has been informed that the items may be intended for use by any military forces, para-military forces, police forces, security services or intelligence services of a country subject to an arms embargo. This supplements the pre-existing military and weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-related end-use controls, broadly aligned with those of the EU, as described in Chapter 8. At present, the UK has not extended its end-use controls to capture cyber-surveillance items intended for, or for use in connection with, internal repression or certain human rights abuses, as introduced in the EU under Regulation (EU) 2021/821.

Consequences of non-compliance with UK export controls

The main enforcement body for export control in the UK is Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HMRC). In addition to referring cases to the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) for a potential prosecution, HMRC is also able to issue administrative penalties (sometimes known as ‘compound’ penalties) as a way of settling an investigation that it would otherwise refer to the CPS for a potential criminal prosecution. The power for HMRC to issue compound penalties is found in Section 152 of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979. Compound penalties are sometimes made public in an anonymised form, and whether or not HMRC seeks to settle a breach by way of a compound penalty, or recommends a criminal prosecution, depends on a variety of factors.

In the UK, there are a number of criminal offences that may be triggered by an export control violation, depending on the nature of the breach. The majority of UK offences are set out in the Export Control Order 2008, in addition to the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979, and these fall into one of four categories:

• offences concerning prohibited or controlled goods. These offences relate to:
  • military goods;^[9]
  • goods that may be used for purposes relating to WMD;
  • providing any technical assistance for the supply, delivery, manufacture or maintenance of WMD;^[10]
  • supplying or delivering, or agreeing to supply or deliver, or doing anything to promote the supply or delivery of certain goods between any overseas country and embargoed destinations;^[11] and
  • supplying or delivering, or agreeing to supply or deliver, or doing anything to promote the supply or delivery of Category A goods,^[12] Category B goods^[13] or Category C^[14] goods from one third country to another third country (namely the items on the UK’s control list of military items, categorised according to their sensitivity);
• offences concerning dual-use goods^[15] (i.e., dual-use items or any item that is usable for both civil and military purposes);^[16]
• offences concerning the Torture Regulation;^[17] and
• offences concerned with making misleading statements for obtaining a licence.^[18]

Although there are a number of offences that can be triggered by a breach, we have seen UK enforcement authorities increasingly use their administrative powers of settlement. For example, between January 2017 and December 2021, HMRC received 47 compound settlements totalling over £1.4 million.

Footnotes